GOVERNMENT
Following
the Napoleonic wars, the British expanded trade with the Nigerian
interior. In 1885, British claims to a sphere of influence in
that area received international recognition and, in the following
year, the Royal Niger Company was chartered. In 1900, the company's
territory came under the control of the British Government, which
moved to consolidate its hold over the area of modern Nigeria.
In 1914, the area was formally united as the "Colony and
Protectorate of Nigeria." Administratively, Nigeria remained
divided into the northern and southern provinces and Lagos colony.
Western education and the development of a modern economy proceeded
more rapidly in the south than in the north, with consequences
felt in Nigeria's political life ever since. Following World War
II, in response to the growth of Nigerian nationalism and demands
for independence, successive constitutions legislated by the British
Government moved Nigeria toward self-government on a representative,
increasingly federal, basis.
Nigeria
was granted full independence in October 1960, as a federation
of three regions (northern, western, and eastern) under a constitution
that provided for a parliamentary form of government. Under the
constitution, each of the three regions retained a substantial
measure of self-government. The federal government was given exclusive
powers in defense and security, foreign relations, and commercial
and fiscal policies. In October 1963, Nigeria altered its relationship
with the United Kingdom by proclaiming itself a federal republic
and promulgating a new constitution. A fourth region (the midwest)
was established that year. From the outset, Nigeria's ethnic,
regional, and religious tensions were magnified by the significant
disparities in economic and educational development between the
south and the north.
On January
15, 1966, a small group of army officers, mostly southeastern
Igbos, overthrew the government and assassinated the federal prime
minister and the premiers of the northern and western regions.
The federal military government that assumed power was unable
to quiet ethnic tensions or produce a constitution acceptable
to all sections of the country. In fact, its efforts to abolish
the federal structure greatly raised tensions and led to another
coup in July. The coup related massacre of thousands of Igbo in
the north prompted hundreds of thousands of them to return to
the southeast, where increasingly strong Igbo secessionist sentiment
emerged.
In a move
that gave greater autonomy to minority ethnic groups, the military
divided the four regions into 12 states. The Igbo rejected attempts
at constitutional revisions and insisted on full autonomy for
the east. Finally, in May 1967, Lt. Col. Emeka Ojukwu, the military
governor of the eastern region, who emerged as the leader of increasing
Igbo secessionist sentiment, declared the independence of the
eastern region as the "Republic of Biafra." The ensuing
civil war was bitter and bloody, ending in the defeat of Biafra
in 1970.
Following
the civil war, reconciliation was rapid and effective, and the
country turned to the task of economic development. Foreign exchange
earnings and government revenues increased spectacularly with
the oil price rises of 1973-74. On July 29, 1975, Gen. Murtala
Muhammed and a group of fellow officers staged a bloodless coup,
accusing the military government of Gen. Yakubu Gowon delaying
the promised return to civilian rule and becoming corrupt and
ineffective. General Muhammed replaced thousands of civil servants
and announced a timetable for the resumption of civilian rule
by October 1, 1979. Muhammed also announced the government's intention
to create new states and to construct a new federal capital in
the center of the country.
General
Muhammed was assassinated on February 13, 1976, in an abortive
coup. His chief of staff, Lt. Gen. Olusegun Obasanjo, became head
of state. Obasanjo adhered meticulously to the schedule for return
to civilian rule, moving to modernize and streamline the armed
forces and seeking to use oil revenues to diversify and develop
the country's economy. Seven new states were created in 1976,
bringing the total to 19. The process of creating additional states
continued until, in 1996, there were 36.
The
Second Republic
A constituent assembly was elected in 1977 to draft a new constitution,
which was published on September 21, 1978, when the ban on political
activity, in effect since the advent of military rule, was lifted.
Political parties were formed, and candidates were nominated for
president and vice president, the two houses of the National Assembly,
governorships, and state houses of assembly. In 1979, five political
parties competed in a series of elections in which a northerner,
Alhaji Shehu Shagari of the National Party of Nigeria (NPN), was
elected president. All five parties won representation in the
National Assembly.
In August
1983, Shagari and the NPN were returned to power in a landslide
victory, with a majority of seats in the National Assembly and
control of 12 state governments. But the elections were marred
by violence and allegations of widespread vote rigging and electoral
malfeasance led to legal battles over the results.
On December
31, 1983, the military overthrew the Second Republic. Maj. Gen.
Muhammadu Buhari emerged as the leader of the Supreme Military
Council (SMC), the country's new ruling body. He charged the civilian
government with economic mismanagement, widespread corruption,
election fraud, and a general lack of concern for the problems
of Nigerians. He also pledged to restore prosperity to Nigeria
and to return the government to civilian rule but proved unable
to deal with Nigeria's severe economic problems. The Buhari government
was peacefully overthrown by the SMC's third-ranking member, Army
Chief of Staff Maj. Gen. Ibrahim Babangida, in August 1985.
Babangida moved to restore freedom of the press and to release political detainees being held without charge. As part of a 15-month economic emergency, he announced stringent pay cuts for the military, police, and civil servants and enacted similar cuts for the private sector. Imports of rice, corn, and wheat were banned. Babangida orchestrated a national debate on proposed economic reform and recovery measures, which reportedly convinced him of intense opposition to an economic recovery package dependent on an International Monetary Fund (IMF) loan.
The
Abortive Third Republic
In early 1989, a constituent assembly completed work on a constitution for the Third Republic, and political activity again was permitted. In April 1990, mid-level officers tried and failed to overthrow Babangida, and 69 accused coup plotters were later executed after secret trials before military tribunals. In December 1990 the first stage of partisan elections was held at the local government level, followed by gubernatorial and state legislative elections in December 1991; turnout was low but non-violent. However, Babangida canceled primaries scheduled for August and September 1992 due to fraud. All announced candidates were disqualified from again standing for president once a new election format was selected. After delayed promises for elections in 1990, the government finally held a presidential election on June 12, 1993.
In what most observers deemed to be Nigeria's fairest elections, early returns indicated that wealthy Yoruba businessman M.K.O. Abiola had won a decisive victory. But on June 23, Babangida, using several pending lawsuits as a pretense, annulled the election, throwing Nigeria into turmoil. More than 100 persons were killed in riots before Babangida agreed to hand power to an "interim government" on August 27. Babangida then attempted to renege on his decision. Without popular and military support, he was forced to hand over to Ernest Shonekan, a prominent nonpartisan businessman. Shonekan was to rule until new elections, slated for February 1994. Although he had led Babangida's Transitional Council since early 1993, Shonekan was unable to reverse Nigeria's ever-growing economic problems or to defuse lingering political tension.
With the country sliding into chaos, Defense Minister Sani Abacha quickly assumed power and forced Shonekan's "resignation" on November 17, 1993. Abacha dissolved all democratic political institutions and replaced elected governors with military officers. Abacha promised to return the government to civilian rule but refused to announce a timetable. Following the annulment of the June 12 election, the United States and other nations imposed various sanctions on Nigeria, including restrictions on travel by government officials and their families and suspension of arms sales and military assistance. Additional sanctions were imposed as a result of Nigeria's failure to gain full certification for its counter-narcotics efforts.
Although Abacha's takeover was initially welcomed by many Nigerians, disenchantment grew rapidly. Many opposition figures formed the "National Democratic Coalition (NADECO)" to campaign for an immediate return to civilian rule, and most Nigerians boycotted the May 1994 polls for delegates to a government-sponsored Constitutional Conference. On June 11, 1994, using the groundwork laid by NADECO, Abiola declared himself president and went into hiding. He reemerged and was promptly arrested on June 23. A series of strikes by petroleum workers and other unions initially brought economic life in Lagos and the southwest to a standstill, but by mid-August Abacha had dismissed the national union leadership, arrested his opponents, closed media houses, and moved strongly to curb dissent. In early 1995, Abacha alleged that some 40 military officers and civilians were engaged in a coup plot, including former head of state Obasanjo and his deputy, retired Gen. Shehu Musa Yar'Adua. After a secret tribunal, most of the accused were convicted, and several death sentences were handed down. The tribunal also charged, convicted, and sentenced prominent human rights activists, journalists, and others--including relatives of the coup suspects--for their alleged "anti-regime" activities.
In an October 1, 1995 address to the nation, Gen. Sani Abacha announced the timetable for a 3-year transition to civilian rule. Public turnout for his sham local elections in December 1997 and in April 1998 state assembly and gubernatorial elections was under 10%, and public reaction to Abacha's presidential nomination by the five accepted parties was apathy and a near-complete boycott. Widely expected to succeed himself as a civilian president on October 1, 1998, he remained head of state until his death on June 8 of that year. During the Abacha regime, the government continued to enforce its arbitrary authority through the federal security system--the military, the state security service, and the courts. Under Abacha, all branches of the security forces committed serious human rights abuses. Abacha was replaced by General Abdulsalami Abubakar, who subsequently released almost all known civilian political detainees and decreased the number of reported human rights abuses.
Abubakar's
Transition to Civilian Rule
During both the Abacha and Abubakar eras, Nigeria's main decisionmaking
organ was the exclusively military Provisional Ruling Council
(PRC) which governed by decree. The PRC oversaw the 32-member
federal executive council composed of civilians and military officers.
Pending the promulgation of the constitution written by the constitutional
conference in 1995, the government observed some provisions of
the 1979 and 1989 constitutions. Neither Abacha nor Abubakar lifted
the decree suspending the 1979 constitution, and the 1989 constitution
was not implemented. The judiciary's authority and independence
was significantly impaired during the Abacha era by the military
regime's arrogation of judicial power and prohibition of court
review of its action. The court system continued to be hampered
by corruption and lack of resources after Abacha's death. In an
attempt to alleviate such problems, Abubakar's government implemented
a civil service pay raise and other reforms.
In August 1998, the Abubakar government appointed the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) to conduct elections for local government councils, state legislatures and governors, the National Assembly, and president. INEC held a series of four successive elections between December 1998 and February 1999. Former military head of state Olusegun Obasanjo, freed from prison by Abubakar, ran as a civilian candidate and won the presidential election. Irregularities marred the vote, and the defeated candidate, Chief Olu Falae, challenged the electoral results and Obasanjo's victory in court.
The PRC
promulgated a new constitution based largely on the suspended
1979 constitution, before the May 29, 1999 inauguration of the
new civilian president. The constitution includes provisions for
a bicameral legislature, the National Assembly, consisting of
a 360-member House of Representatives and a 109-member Senate.
The executive branch and the office of president will retain strong
federal powers. The legislature and judiciary, having suffered
years of neglect, must be rebuilt as institutions.
The
Obasanjo Administration
The emergence of a democratic Nigeria in May 1999 ended 16 years
of consecutive military rule. Olusegun Obasanjo became the steward
of a country suffering economic stagnation and the deterioration
of most of its democratic institutions. Obasanjo, a former general,
was admired for his stand against the Abacha dictatorship, his
record of returning the federal government to civilian rule in
1979, and his claim to represent all Nigerians regardless of religion.
The new
President took over a country that faced many problems, including
a dysfunctional bureaucracy, collapsed infrastructure, and a military
that wanted a reward for returning quietly to the barracks. The
President moved quickly and retired hundreds of military officers
who held political positions, established a blue-ribbon panel
to investigate human rights violations, ordered the release of
scores of persons held without charge, and rescinded a number
of questionable licenses and contracts let by the previous military
regimes. The government also moved to recover millions of dollars
in funds secreted in overseas accounts.
Most civil
society leaders and most Nigerians see a marked improvement in
human rights and democratic practice under Obasanjo. The press
enjoys greater freedom than under previous governments. As Nigeria
works out representational democracy, there have been conflicts
between the Executive and Legislative branches over major appropriations
and other proposed legislation. A sign of federalism has been
the growing visibility of state governors and the inherent friction
between Abuja and the various state capitols over resource allocation.
In the eight years since the end of military rule, Nigeria has witnessed recurrent incidents of ethno-religious, community, and resource-related conflicts. Many of these arose from distorted use of oil revenue wealth, as well as from flaws in the 1999 constitution. In May 1999, violence erupted in Kaduna State over the succession of an Emir, resulting in more than 100 deaths. In November 1999, the army destroyed the town of Odi in Bayelsa State and killed scores of civilians in retaliation for the murder of 12 policemen by a local gang. In Kaduna in February-May 2000 over 1,000 people died in rioting over the introduction of criminal Shar'ia in the state. Hundreds of ethnic Hausa were killed in reprisal attacks in southeastern Nigeria. In September 2001, over 2,000 people were killed in inter-religious rioting in Jos. In October 2001, hundreds were killed and thousands displaced in communal violence that spread across the Middle-Belt states of Benue, Taraba, and Nasarawa. On October 1, 2001, President Obasanjo announced the formation of a National Security Commission to address the issue of communal violence. In 2003, he was re-elected in contentious and highly flawed national elections and state gubernatorial elections, which were litigated over two years. Since 2006, violence, destruction of oil infrastructure, and kidnappings of primarily expatriates in the oil-rich Niger River Delta has intensified as militants demanded a greater share of federal revenue for states in the region, as well as benefits from community development. For many reasons, Nigeria's security services have been unable to respond to the security threat, which is both political and criminal.
In May 2006, the National Assembly soundly defeated an attempt to amend the constitution by supporters of a third presidential term for President Obasanjo. This measure was packaged in a bundle of what were otherwise non-controversial amendments. Nigeria's citizens addressed this issue in a constitutional, democratic, and relatively peaceful process.
Civilian Transition
Nigeria held state legislative and gubernatorial elections on April 14 as well
as presidential and national legislative elections on April 21, 2007, in which
more than 35 political parties participated. Nigeria missed an opportunity to
strengthen an element of its democracy through a sound electoral process.
Analysis of the process by most international observers did not conform to what
Nigeria's National Electoral Commission (INEC) reported. U.S. and international
observers reported overall a seriously flawed process with credible reports of
malfeasance and vote rigging in some constituencies. The scope of violence that
occurred also was regrettable. There were considerable degrees of difference in
the conduct of elections among states, but serious differences were also
observed within states during the two polling dates. The main opposition
parties, All Nigeria People's Party (ANPP) and the Action Congress (AC), as well
as numerous smaller political parties and the ruling People's Democratic Party
(PDP) filed petitions to challenge the results of gubernatorial elections in 34
of Nigeria's 36 states. The Court of Appeal received 1,527 petitions, a tripling
of the 527 petitions filed and received in 2003. INEC's principal problems
included politicization and lack of independence, lack of transparency in its
operations and decision-making, and persistent failure to make adequate
logistical arrangements for both voter registration and polling. With INEC's
certification of the ruling party's presidential ticket as the winner with over
70% of the vote, Nigeria experienced its first transition of power between
civilian administrations when President Obasanjo stepped down on May 29, 2007.
Newly-elected President Umaru Yar'Adua, a moderate and a respected governor from
the northern state of Katsina, pledged publicly to make electoral reform, peace
and security in the Niger Delta, and continued electoral reform his top
priorities.
Much reform remains to be implemented, but the Yar'Adua administration has shown
restraint in allowing the legislative and judicial branches to operate
relatively free. In October 2007 Patricia Etteh, the Speaker of the Federal
House of Representatives, resigned over allegations of corruption, after intense
legislative and public pressure. Of significance for Nigeria's system of checks
and balances and the rule of law, on November 12, 2008 an appeals court upheld a
lower court ruling that approved an opposition party's gubernatorial election
appeal, effectively unseating the ruling party's incumbent in favor of the
opposition candidate. By a 4-3 vote, Nigeria’s Supreme Court on December 12 upheld the results of the presidential election and dismissed the appeals of the two other primary contenders.
Principal
Government Officials
President--Musu Umaru Yar'adua
Vice President--Goodluck Jonathan
Nigeria
maintains an embassy
in the United States at 3519 International Place, NW, Washington,
DC 20008, (tel. 202-986-8400, fax-202-775-1385) and a consulate
general in New York at 575 Lexington Ave., New York, NY 10022,
(tel. 212-715-7200).
Type: Federal republic.
Independence: October 1, 1960.
Constitution: The 1999 constitution (based largely on the 1979 constitution) was promulgated by decree on May 5, 1999 and came into force on May 29, 1999.
Subdivisions: 36 states plus Federal Capital Territory (Abuja); states divided into a total of 774 local government areas.
2008 budget: $23.4 billion, of which recurrent expenditures constitute $11.1 billion, capital expenditures $7.4 billion, statutory transfers $1.4 billion, and debt service $3.2 billion. Critical sectors--security and the Niger Delta (20%); education (8%); transportation (7%); agriculture and water (5%); and energy (5%).
Indebtedness, including federal/state government debt, as percentage of GDP: 10.4%.
